Open Source Philosophy and the Dawn of Aviation

The present paper was concerned with the analysis of Aviation development in the early 20th century. The main focus of the analysis was the different working ambiences that were established in the United States and in Europe, noticeably in France. These ambiences had a crucial impact on the outcome of the airplane performance and Aviation milestones in both continents. The work of individuals and the industrial development in regard to Aviation were analyzed to fundament the hypothesis that the French and Industrial Revolutions played a major role in the development of Aviation. Initially, we can consider the masterpiece of Alberto Santos-Dumont, a Brazilian aviation pioneer who spent most

Revolution.The development of the airship number 3 from Santos-Dumont is a good example, because it was based on an earlier design from the Tissandier brothers.
In 1881, the French brothers Albert and Gaston Tissandier electricity exposition by attaching an electric motor to an (Santos-Dumont, 1904).The same brothers also made a second attempt on September 26, 1884, which performed as they had expected for.In the late 14 th century, Santos-Dumont built, among other designs, two cigar-shaped airships.Figure 1 shows his number 2 concept, which went through an accident when its gas container doubled up (Santos-Dumont, 1904).
From this point on, Santos-Dumont (Santos-Dumont, 1904) tion from his friend Tissandier for the number 3 airship, which Although Santos-Dumont did not mention that he took over the Tissandier design in the books he wrote, the similarities between both designs are obvious (Fig. 2). Figure 2. Santos-Dumont number 3 (left) was very similar in shape when compared to one of its predecessors, the electric-Contrary to what happened in France, a very competitive atmosphere was established in the United States, with almost no collaborative work among the aviation pioneers being registered.To exemplify this, we address the work carried of the bolometer and pioneer of Aviation.He attempted to make a working piloted heavier-than-air aircraft.He began experimenting with rubber-band powered models and gliders rotating arm (functioning similar to a wind tunnel) and made launch from a boat on the Potomac River.The distance was ten times longer than any previous experiment with a heaviergrant of US$ 50,000 and US$ 20,000 from the Smithsonian to develop a piloted airplane, which was christened Aerodrome with their 1902 glider, he attempted to meet them, but they politely evaded his request.built, the internal combustion engine was contracted out to the design.This engine was able to deliver 50 hp, far more probably the main contribution to aviation in the United States.The piloted machine had wire-braced tandem wings.It had a Pénaud tail for pitch and yaw control, but no roll control, depending instead on the dihedral angle of the wings, as did which could land on solid ground (Culick, 2001) and Santosover the Potomac River.This required a catapult for launching up the project after two crashes on take-off on October 7 and December 8, both in 1903.
the impressive 50-hp engine that was developed for the Aerodrome airplane.This would have provided the United States with a giant leap in Aviation at that time.
Concerning the Aerodrome, it was rebuilt by the American aviation pioneer Glenn Curtiss, who struggled in court against with the airplane ( Schmitt, 1990).Afterwards, the Smithsonian of a heavier-than-air vehicle.The dispute was terminated in 1942 after the Institute withdrew its request (Schmitt, 1990).is currently on display in the Smithsonian Museum.
These examples from Europe and the United States are reinforced by others along the present paper, in order to sustain the thesis that Europe was more successful in the development of aviation in the early 20 th century because an open source philosophy was established there.In addition, an overview of Aviation in both continents is provided for the same purpose.

Progress report of open source philosophy
The concept of open source and the free sharing of technological information existed long before computers became present in our everyday life.For example, cooking recipes have been shared since the beginning of human culture.Open source can be present in business, software, and any kind of technological knowledge.
The advent of the Internet has reshaped the way people Internet connections have been made available to ordinary people, the Internet found its path to generalized business and grew exponentially.In an opposite direction to the business side, a lot of open source projects, encompassing the world online community, emerged.Most of those ventures are highly is largely driven by its developers and user communities.Some vendors develop and fund their distributions on a voluntary basis, Debian is a well-known example of this.Others maintain a community version of their commercial distributions, as Red Hat does with Fedora.Even the International Business Machine Corporation (IBM) surrendered to its appeals and multilingual free encyclopedia of the highest quality to every single person on the planet in his or her own language."Such website exists to bring knowledge to everyone who seeks hosted on this site are released by their authors under the articles are free content and may be reproduced freely, under the same license.
A generalized initiative for the development of open source projects is the SourceForge one (SourceForge, 2012).SourceForge.net is the world's largest open source software development website.It hosts more than 324,000 projects (status from January 2012) and over 1 million registered users with a centralized resource for managing projects, issues, communications, and codes.SourceForge.nethas the largest repository of open source code and applications available on the Internet and hosts more open source development products than any other site or network worldwide.It also provides a wide variety of services to projects they host, and to the Open Source community.
Another project that seeks help from the online community Internet-connected computers in the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI).Anyone can participate by running a free program that downloads and analyzes radio telescope data.Radio telescope signals consist primarily of noise (from celestial sources and receiver's electronics) and man-made signals, such as TV stations, radar, and satellites.The modern radio SETI projects analyze the data digitally.More computing power enables searches to cover greater frequency ranges with more sensitivity.Radio SETI, therefore, has an insatiable appetite for computing power.Previous radio SETI projects have used special-purpose supercomputers, located at the telescope, to do the bulk of data analysis.
In 1995, David Gedye proposed doing radio SETI using a virtual supercomputer composed of large numbers of Internetconnected computers, and he organized the SETI@home project to explore this idea, which was originally launched in May 1999.The reason for asking the online community for helping to process radio telescope signals is caused because the researchers are limited by the amount of computer power available for data analysis.To tease out the weakest signals, a great amount of computer power is necessary.It would take a monstrous supercomputer to get the job done.SETI programs could never afford to build or buy such computing power.combined machines provided more than the equivalent to two million years of computing time looking for faint signs of intelligent life beyond earth.
There are uncountable initiatives for the development of open source engineering software packages.Indeed, it can register such initiatives on all fronts of engineering subjects system simulation, for naming just a few of them.It is worthy package for numerical computations that provides a powerful applications.Since 1994 it has been distributed freely along with the source code via the Internet.It is currently used in educational and industrial environments around the world.

The French and English Revolutions
The French Revolution in 1789, which caused the fall of the monarchy in France, is one of the most important facts of th received from his predecessor a country tion, which faced a high load of taxes.France still kept its mediaeval social structure, counting three classes: nobility, approximately two-thirds of its production for the payment of taxes (Maior, 1966).
Rousseau contributed to the goals of revolution.In addition to these philosophers, the economists Quesnay and Adam Smith contributed ideologically to the great transformation of 1789 (Maior, 1966).
In general, four causes can be enumerated to explain the French Revolution (Darnton, 1982).Firstly, the Enlightenment contributed to an environment in which revolution was possible by its insistence on reforming institutions to comply with standards of reason and utility.Furthermore, it coincided with public opinion rise, which undermined the absolutist notion that political decisions required no consultation or tolerated no opposition.Secondly, the French state faced bank-Thirdly, France witnessed endemic political strife in the 18 th century.Technically, absolutist monarchs ruled by divine right and exercised sovereignty without the interference of representative institutions.French kings in reality met with opposition to their policies from the noble magistrates of the the name of protecting traditional rights from arbitrary authorwere stress zones in French society, as a growing population threatened many people with destitution and as talented after bad weather doubled the price of bread in 1789.
Enlightenment was a movement which stated that science could explain everything in nature.Until then, most people manner.Metaphysical means beyond physical, and suggests that it is impossible for humans to comprehend things that happen in our environment.Since it was developed more or less simultaneously in Germany, France, Great Britain, the through much of Europe, Russia and Scandinavia as well as the signatories of the American Declaration of Independence, the United States Bill of Rights, and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, were motivated by Enlightenment principles (Israel, 2001).
Galileo used a refracting telescope to search the skies, some to observe Saturn's rings, though he could not see them well enough to discern their true nature.Based on his observations, around the sun.
Enlightenment thinkers encouraged people to use science to explore nature and to question what they had always accepted without questioning.The Enlightenment stimulated people to participate in the government and to rethink old ideas, such as feudalism and primogeniture.The American Revolution and the French Republic are seen by many as huge achievements for the Enlightenment.
from the moments before it.The French Revolution and its aftermath were no exceptions, being recorded as a period of political and social upheaval in the history of France.In many ways it sprang from the undeniable and unswayable forces of modernization, toppling a system that was dying under its own weight and intrinsically unable to adapt and survive in the new economic and philosophical reality.The French governmental structure, which was previously an absolute monarchy with feudal privileges for the aristocracy and Catholic clergy, underwent radical change to forms based on Enlightenment principles of nationalism, citizenship, and inalienable rights.These changes were accompanied by violent turmoil, including executions and repression during the Reign of Terror, and warfare involving every other major European power.Subsequent events that can be traced to the rations of the monarchy, and two additional revolutions as modern France took shape.The ideals brought by the French Revolution for a more equal society rapidly spread along the Poverty of Philosophy" in 1847, a response to Pierre-Joseph ideals of the French Revolution.
The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18 th and early 19 th centuries when major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, and transportation with a profound effect on the socioeconomic and cultural conditions in Britain happened.The Industrial or English Revolution crystallized some principles that were contrary in many ways to the ideals of the French Revolution.Under the umbrella of the English Revolution, the human being was not the center of matters.Money, or more exactly the capitalist, was the gravity center of the system with few or no regard to workers' life.The changes brought by the Industrial Revolution subsequently world, a process that continued as industrialization.The onset of the Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in human society; almost every aspect of daily life was eventu-In the later part of the 1700s, there was a transition in parts of Great Britain's previously manual-labor-based economy towards machine-based manufacturing.It started with the mechanization of the textile industries, the development of Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads, and railways.The introduction of steam power (fuelled primarily by coal) and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity.The development of allth century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines th century, eventually affecting most of the world.The impact of this change on society was enormous.

Experiments with balloons
Compared to the civilization history and naval warfare, the history of Aviation is very recent, only about a century old.
well-recorded.Because the history of the aerostat started long before that of the airplane, it is less known.
Ancient inscriptions and texts indicate that the Chinese used hot air balloons and gigantic kites before the Christian Mongols used illuminated kites to communicate during the one of the most powerful nations in the world, which an internal crusade against them.On Friday, October 13, 1307 (a date possibly linked to the origin of the Friday the 13 th legend), Philip had all French Templars simultaneously arrested, charged with numerous heresies, and tortured by French authorities nominally under the Inquisition, until they allegedly confessed.This action released Philip from his obligation to repay huge loans from the Templars and Philip (who had been responsible for maneuvering Pope the order at the Council of Vienna.Even though all lands were supposed to be turned over to the Hospitallers, Phillip retained a great deal of the Templar assets in France.Some other European leaders followed suit in an effort to reduce the amount of Church-owned lands and property.
In 1314, three Templar leaders, including Grand Master Jacques De Molay, Hugh De Perault, and Godfrey De Goneville were burned alive at the stake by French authorities after publicly renouncing any guilt.Remaining Templars around Europe, having been arrested and tried under the Papal investigation, were either absorbed into other military taller or contemplative Benedictine or Augustinian ones.In Portugal, they found refuge under the Order of Christ.The Templars brought to Portugal treasures, knowledge of ancient civilizations, and naval technology from the Arabians, which triggered the naval navigation era, making Portugal one of the most powerful nations in the world.
Under the European expansion brought by the navigation era, Brazil was discovered by Portugal in 1500.Brazilian Jesuit Bartolomeu de Gusmão, born in Brazil to Portuguese parents, adopted a religious career and moved to Portugal when he was 15 years-old.By reading antique writings possibly brought to Portugal by Templars, he rediscovered the principle of the hot-air balloon.In August 1709, Gusmão built a small and unmanned balloon and performed a demonthat Gusmão built an unmanned larger balloon that freely ascended outdoors some time later.Bartolomeu de Gusmão proceeded with his experiments with larger balloons and was launched from Saint Jorge Castle, on the top of one of do Paço.However, there is no evidence that this actually and left Portugal.Before leaving the country, he gave his brother several drawings of his balloons.After some time, his brother worked at Portugal's Embassy in Paris and established some contacts to José de Barros, a scientist close Short before the French Revolution, the brothers Josephballoon of sackcloth with three thin layers of paper inside.The envelope could have nearly 790 m 3 of air and weighed 225 kg.It was constructed of four pieces (dome and three lateral bands), and held together by 1,800 buttons.A reinforcing In June 4 th public demonstration at Annonay in front of a group of digni-2 km, lasted ten minutes, and had an estimated altitude of Etienne went to the capital to make further demonstrations Joseph, given his unkempt appearance and shyness, remained with the family.
From the flights with Montgolfiers' balloons on, ballooning became largely widespread.In 1785, Jean-Pierre Blanchard and John Jeffries departed from England on a balloon and crossed the English Channel.In 1794, France opened a ballooning school.It also used two balloon corps in the battles of Maubeuge and Fleurus and in the Mainz siege in the following year.In July of 1849, Austrian troops used English aeronaut Charles Green (1785-1870) used a coal in 1836.It was on this voyage, along with passengers Robert Holland and Thomas Monck Mason that Green successfully 770 km in 18 hours.After achieving this feat, Green had an endless supply of sponsors, who were eager to ascent in the famous balloon.
engines and propellers (Fig. 2).Santos-Dumont commented on Giffard's experimentation with airships (Santos-Dumont, to its weight, spitting red-hot sparks from its coal fuel, had afforded that courageous innovator no fair chance, I argued.I did not dally a single moment with the idea of an electric motor, which promises little danger, it is true, but which has the capital ballooning defect of being the heaviest known engine, counting the weight of its battery.Indeed, I have so little patience with the idea that I shall say no more about it except to repeat what Mr. Edison said to me on this head petroleum motor'." From Giffard's steam-powered airship on, numerous vehicles were developed, including that belonging to Paul Hälein, in 1872 (Fig. 3), and the one of Charles Ritchel, internal combustion engines on an airship.Hydrogen was used as the fuel to lift the airship, stored in a single tank.In the United States, Charles Ritchel made demonstrations of a lighter-than-aircraft built with impermeable fabric and tubular structure with room for the pilot and an engine, and turn of the century.
In 1883, the brothers Albert and Gaston Tissandier from electricity.The current was supplied by 24 potash cells to a per minute.The engine drove a large two-bladed pusher propeller, through a reduction gearbox.The speed achieved at no wind conditions was still only 4.8 km/h, since the ratio of power to weight was no better than that of Giffard's airship (Santos-Dumont, 1904).
French Army Corps of Engineers, built an elongated airship, could return to its starting point in a light wind.It was 50.3 m long, its maximum diameter was 8.2 m, and it had a capacity of 1,869 m 3 This motor was later replaced with another one that delivered covered bamboo framework, lined with canvas hung below the balloon.The structure that accommodated the batteries and engine was 33 m long, 1.4 m wide, and 1.8 m deep.The engine drove a four-bladed wooden tractor propeller that was 7 m in diameter, but which could be inclined upwards when landing to avoid damages to the blades.Renard also provided rudder and elevator, ballonets (to keep the shape of the gas container), sliding weight to compensate for any shift in the gravity center, and a heavy guide rope to assist in landing, all this would become standard equipment for the next generations of airships to come.one during which they had been in control throughout.In 1884 lightweight engine.
airship pointedly named Deutschland.The gondola was directly connected to the hull and an 8-hp Daimler engine powered in Cannstatt, close to the city of Stuttgart.In 1897, the airship and his mechanic died in the accident.Escaping hydrogen from the envelope had probably come into contact with the hot Open Source Philosophy and the Dawn of Aviation Figure 3.Some airships built in the second half of the 18 th century.
power-driven Aviation.Future designers would avoid placing Austrian engineer David Schwarz was also attempting to harness the petrol engine to an airship, which was highly unusual and ahead of its time in being made of sheet aluminum, an eight thousandth of an inch thick, which was supported internally by an aluminum frame braced with wires (Fig. 3).The airship was 47.5 m long and had a capacity of 3,700 m 3 .Power was provided by a 12-hp Daimler engine, driving four propellers, two of which were for steering and the remaining other two for propulsion.Schwarz's mechanic had the dubious honor of testing his employer's novel brainchild.The airship made its maiden voyage from successful circles, but then started to descend rapidly before it struck the ground and broke up.This time, the pilot was able to walk away, without any bruises.

Practical airships
built by Santos-Dumont and was ahead of its time.Instead of Chinese silk, he employed in its construction the Japanese one (Santos-Dumont, 1904).This resulted in a much smaller and lighter balloon compared to the existing ones with the same payload.The common sense at that time advised the use of Chinese silk, but Santos-Dumont correctly calculated that Japanese silk would enable a lighter balloon.
After his brief experiments with balloons, Alberto Santos-David Schwarz's crash.He christened it Santos-Dumont number1 (Fig. 4).It was made of lightweight Japanese silk, had a capacity of 186 m 3 , and was powered by a 3.5-hp internal combustion engine.Similar to many other Santos-Dumont designs, the number 1 was no bigger than was strictly necessary to lift its pilot.Santos-Dumont did not even have room to sit down in the tiny wicker basket.After a takeoff attempt, Dumont's number 1 crashed on September 18, 1898 (Santos-Dumont, 1904).The airship hit the trees of Jardin D'Acclimatation in Bois de Boulogne and was extensively damaged.Santos-Dumont repaired it and took off again a couple of days later.Using the incidence-changing mechanism he had designed, he was able to reach a 400 m height.At the highest altitude attained by Santos-Dumont, the pressure drop accounted by hydrogen leakage, which was caused by the porosity of the hull, could not be compensated by Dumont's mechanism anymore.The graceful dirigible was out of control shouted out for some boys below to catch the hanging rope and maneuvered the airship against the wind (Santos-Dumont, 1904).The landing was then almost perfect.
Santos-Dumont's second airship was strongly based on the threw the airship against the trees.was lifted by hydrogen and powered by an internal combustion envelope failure.In this time, a long sausage shape was rejected in favor of an elliptical envelope, similar to the one Giffard and his friend Tissandier (Fig. 4) had used long before.Since it was thicker in the middle of its length, it was unable to fold propelled by an internal combustion engine.Besides hydrogen, Santos-Dumont also considered to employ illumination gas for lifting the number 3 airship.The main idea behind this was to design a low-cost aircraft, which could be easily manufactured to be employed as a general transportation.Henri Deutsch de la Meurthe established the Deutsch de la Meurthe Prize of 100 000 francs (US$ 20 000, in 1901 dollar) minutes.The entire city of Paris watched as Santos-Dumont performed his aviation milestone in October 1901, piloting his airship number 6 (Fig. 5).Santos-Dumont envisioned a future in which air transpor-Dumont's largest design, was conceived with passenger trans-10 was unsuccessful, Dumont's dream came true as early as famous for using airships to carry passengers overseas.cloth-covered dirigible, which was the prototype of many subsequent models, had 1 aluminum structure, 17 hydrogen containers for lifting gas storage, and 2 15-hp Daimler internal combustion engines, each turning two propellers.After two and more powerful engines; more accurate commands; and one of the engines malfunctioned and the airship proceeded to an emergency landing.Afterwards, a thunderstorm caught was also destroyed by a thunderstorm in 1908, the Germans Santos-Dumont meets Thomas Edison became worldwide famous.He was cartooned, biographies about him were written, postcards featured him, suits and shoes were sold remembering his way of dressing, and even Carnival costumes in Brazil imitated his airships (Jorge, 1977).Santos-Dumont eccentricities and adventurous life have also inspired lots and lots of adventurers and writers.Right after his trip to the United States in 1902 and his return to Paris, great number of toys and publications appeared.Probably, Tom Swift was the most expressive character ever created based on Santos-Dumont real life (Pagano, 2012).Most of the inventions in the Tom Swift series are enhancements of the real inventor's creation, the combined airplane-airship was perfectly inspired in Santos-Dumont number 14 (Fig. 6).One of the purposes of their conversation was the aeronauti-Times, 1902).This encounter was published by some newspaper at that time (Pagano, 2012).Emmanuel Aimé, ex-secretary of the Aéro-Club de France, took part in the meeting.
In the beginning of the meeting, Edison declared that mankind ought to be ashamed of themselves because the problem of aerial navigation by human beings had not been solved.He also made clear that while Santos-Dumont performed a great job in steering airships through the air, it would take a long time before Aviation was due to become commercially possible.The reasons were due to the fact that no inventor was able to secure any reward for his labor under the patent laws at that time.He called for a sort of protective institute of invention, which should have rewarded the successful inventor of the commercial airship (Pagano, 2012).
The next contents of the talk between Santos-Dumont and Thomas Edison were extracted from a newspaper report available at Pagano's blog (Pagano, 2012).
Edison was much interested in the young man who had wondered Paris and the world by steering an airship over have never worked on the problem of aerial navigation," years ago more than I have done now."The aeronaut was not trying to be complimentary; he had the biggest admiration for Thomas Edison and his inventive genius.At this point, Edison exploding gunpowder.He experienced a lot in lifting weights with it, but worked with a small model and did not attempt to the English Revolution.
The talk continued and Edison addressed that the aircraft would become even lighter than those already developed by Dumont.Mr. Edison believed that the problem of aerial and not by the airship.Only with the machine can air navireferred to a contrivance heavier than the air, it is intended due to the higher speed at which it moves.In Edison's mind, power, properly applied, to overcome the lack of buoyancy motion in order to hold it in position at a certain altitude.He At a certain point, someone asked Mr. Edison whether his new storage battery would be useful in solving the problem power.Thus, the greatest factor of this problem is to get a very light motor, which will be powerful enough to operate gasoline or gunpowder engines were the best suited for the machine not airships.Afterwards, Santos-Dumont asked Mr. cannot be protected from the pirates who live off the work of inventions, and I do not believe it would be possible to part of one that would stand the test of the courts.If someone dozens would at once copy the models and take away the fruits of the original inventor's labor.There is not a judge in the country who would holds that there was really any invention in such an apparatus, because so much has been done and written about it that the only difference between the successful machine, which have been, will be very alight.I doubt whether any new principle will be discovered on which even a claim for a patent may be made." The aviator believed that there was no big barrier to solve Euler's equations.It is still used in Modern Aerodynamics and Physics.He also successfully calculated the speed of sound.In addition to these theoretical advancements, experiments in Aerodynamics were also producing more practical results.In 1732, the French chemist Henri Pitot invented the pitot tube, a device that enables the speed calculation at a point experiments in 1746 using a whirling arm device and a pendulum to measure drag at low and high speeds.
In 1759, English engineer John Smeaton also used a whirling arm device to measure the drag exerted on a surface by moving air.He proposed the equation D = kSV 2 , where D is the drag, S is the surface area, V is the air speed, and k is a constant, which Smeaton claimed was necessary for it.This value of this constant was debated for years.Those making published the results of his own whirling arm experiments Aerodynamic theories, being able to show the effect that the movement of one object had on another nearby one.The the beginning of the 19 th century.However, this system of equations was solved only halfway through the 20 th century.Therefore, Aviation pioneers largely used experimentation and employed less complex theoretical models in order to achieve their goals.As of the middle of 19 th century, two new lighter-than-air airship with engines and directional control, airplane began to take on a familiar shape.
In passengers from place to place through the air," according which was christened Ariel and was also known as Aerial Steam Carriage (Schmitt, 1990).
tion was comprised of a landing gear, tail surfaces, and engines mounted behind the wing; passengers would be transported in an enclosed fuselage.Two counter-rotating six-bladed propellers would drive the airplane.However, the a journalist whose value was that he knew a Member of Parliament; and Mr. Roebuck, who was expected to promote a bill in Parliament for a shareholders company to operate an Aerial Steam Carriage.Henson and Stringfellow engaged in model testing in order to make their airplane become true.In 1843, they obtained the help of Joe Chapman, a mathematician, who also had a whirling arm device.Chapman made more than 2,000 recorded aerodynamic experiments on the whirling arm for Henson and Stringfellow.This led to an airplane with a span wing of 6 m and an area of 5.84 m 2 , powered by a small steam engine designed primarily by Henson but improved by Stringfellow.Some unsuccessful not able to get airborne after being launched by a catapult construction of lightweight structures were the reasons for the Aerial Steam Carriage failure.
Due to the failure of his proposed enterprise, in 1848, he spent the last 40 years of his life.Henson had apparently ceased his aerial research for good, and never again took up the matter.Stringfellow stayed on and in 1848 tried once more to disappointing, nothing more than a short, uncontrolled hop.At this point, Stringfellow also gave up, and the entire episode was forgotten.However, the Ariel had some positive effects: come up with the multiple-wing design, a feature of nearly all the early successful aircraft.The plane itself was logicambered airfoils.The materials were to be spars of bamboo and hollow wood, with diagonal wire bracing.
unsuccessful since such engines presented high-weight-topower ratio at that time.Only after the internal combustion became possible.

Putting an airplane airborne
In France, an Aviation community was established in the turn of 19 th to 20 th century.Most of people were friends, Voisin, and Santos-Dumont.The latter was not a theoretician or a scientist, but he superbly integrated the technologies at his disposal at that time, in other words a technology integrator.In addition, he improved existing technology in many aspects, for example, lubrication of opposed-cylinders engines.He also invented devices and mechanisms to improve airship stability and maneuverability.Santos-Dumont had been thinking about a heavier-than-air aircraft for a long time (Santos-Dumont, 1904).He initially Barros, 2003).A counter-rotating dual rotor helicopter was posed by a vertical takeoff concerning the required higher power-to-weight ratio, therefore he abandoned the concept.He tried some different concepts that simply did not work.Years before the work to the construction of the monoplane began, Dumont was convinced by the Voisin brothers box kite, linked four of his kites together, added a sling seat, Hargrave opened the door to other inventors and pioneers.The Hargrave-designed box kite, with its improved lift-todrag ratio, was to provide the theoretical wing model that and American airplanes.
In 1905, the Voisin brothers ran a glider manufacturing their glider designs (Fig. 7).During some trials on the Seine River, Santos-Dumont perceived that the Antoinette boat engine, which was employed to bring the glider airborne, way, the 14-bis was conceived.Again, we testify that there was an exchange of information, ideas, and even designs among the members of the aviation community in France.Santos-Dumont properly did not follow entirely the Hargrave-box kite concept.He transformed a pair of wings the outskirts of Paris and was exhaustively tested (Fig. 8).At evaluating the stability of the airplane and, for this reason, it was called 14 bis (Encore).Thus, Dumont also invented the who attended for the occasion.Some months earlier, on August 21, 1906, Santos-Dumont 14 bis airplane was underpowered at this time.His next move, it accounts) above the ground, which ended with a violent landing, damaging the propeller and landing gear.On 23 October 1906, 14 bis Santos-Dumont won the 3,000 Francs Prize Archdeacon, instituted in July 1906 by the American Ernest Archdeacon, bis by the addition of large octagonal ailerons to provide some roll control.Although ailerons had been used in sailplanes before, Dumont pioneered the application for airplanes.Since he already had his hands busy with the rudder and elevator controls (and could not use peddles as he was standing), he operated the commands via a harness attached to his chest.If he wanted to roll right, he would lean to his right, and winning the prize.Their machine presented an elliptical wing and a pair of trapezoidal ones.After some takeoff attempts, takeoff run but damaged the landing gear.After repairing the 14 bis 6 m, attained after taking off against the wind (Fig. 9).Santos-Dumont had shown the world that the dream many aviation enthusiasts and experimenters tried to build on his achievement.Few of them, however, met with much and Romanian Trajan Vuia.Meanwhile, Paul Cornu and the Breguet brothers experimented with helicopter designs.In with four sets of wings, Samuel Cody began the construction of a biplane for the Army, and John Dunne was commissioned by the Government to design an airplane in secrecy.The most successful aircraft of 1907 was one made by the brothers Charles and Gabriel Voisin, now running a plant for airplane brothers and their engineer and works manager M. Colliex make no secret of the fact that they have based their work on fact they say that they never miss an opportunity of utilizing an information or data on which that can lay hands." A biplane elevator at the front was based on the Hargrave boxkite construction, and it carried a huge square tail assembly at the rear.Power was provided by the 50-hp Antoinette engine.It was a crude and heavy machine with no control in roll at all, but it was capable of staying in the air for several seconds at a time, and on this basis the brothers set up a workshop to its manufacture.In the summer of 1907, their third production machine was ordered by Henry Farman.
Henry Farman was born in 1873.Henry trained as a painter at the École des Beaux Artes, but quickly become obsessed with the new mechanical inventions that were rapidly appearing at the end of the 19 th century.Since the Farmans were well-off, he was able to pursue this interest as the feeling of a piece of machinery, and enjoyed considerable success.In the 1890s, he became a championship cyclist, and at the turn of the century he discovered motor racing.mechanic, he covered the 615 miles (990 km) to the Austrian capital in just 16 hours along unmade roads.Farman himself became a casualty of the sport when he was involved in a serious accident.He fully recovered, but the experience tion with machinery endured.He was aware of the Voisin the Voisins began to produce a powered airplane for sale in feel for machines, was soon able to stay in the air longer than turns out of the Voisin, despite it being built without any roll control.This meant that all turns were a delicate skid round on rudder alone.If the outside wing picked up too much airspeed, it would rise, and if the turn was persisted in, the plane would be in danger of side-slipping into the ground tions of his own to the Voisin during the autumn, including a reduction in the size of the tail surfaces, removing one of the forward elevators, and rigging a slight dihedral angle into the wings.Thus, the Voisin-Farman I became the Voisin-Farman I-bis.It was clear to members of the Aéro-Club that Farman would soon attempt to win the last and largest Archdeacon prize, the so-called Grand Prix of Aviation.This comprised a purse of 50,000 francs (of which half had been contributed circle made during the last few days of 1907, in which Farman managed to cover this distance, though not without the wheels of his machine lightly touching the ground at ground except at the take-off and landing.Two days later Club de France, he repeated this performance for a third time, and won the Deutsch-Archdeacon prize of 50,000 machine of one kilometer in a closed circuit.The weather was perfect, there being practically no wind and the air Paris, at 10:12 AM.At that time, the airplane was started and ran along the ground for 90 or 120 m and attained its usual speed of about 30 miles an hour, and quickly ascended into the air to a height of 3.6 or 4.5 m.It passed between about half way to this post, Farman operated his horizontal rudder, and caused the machine to rise to a height of about 7.5 m.The airplane swept around the halfway post almost on an even keel, and then took a straight course back to the goal, which it passed through at about the same height as before, descending 30 m or so beyond in practically the was 1 minute and 28 seconds, which corresponds with an average speed of about 25 ½ miles an hour.loaded it with 66 pounds dead weight, but he found that struck by a sudden strong gust of wind, which caused it to wheel around almost at right angles, and also to incline inward very sharply.After making the turn, however, it 1.5 m above the ground.which had thus far been made.Farman expressed himself as as far as its lifting power is concerned.In all probability his next step will be to equip it with a more powerful and lighter years ago has in this respect been duplicated; however there are many other points to be considered when one reviews the that his machine in that condition was incapable of longquantity of fuel; secondly, he has not demonstrated its capa-Farman's airplane had approximately the same weight as times the horse-power, and of about one-quarter the weight per horse-power developed.In spite of their handicap in the shape of less horse-power and a much weightier motor, against 52 km/h shown by Farman's.Therefore, the American inventors, by constructing a slightly larger machine and motor, should have been readily able to carry two men and In March 1908, Farman recovered the machine in rubberized fabric and changed the engine for a 50-hp Renault.The Voisin-Farman I-bis became the Henri Farman I-bis.The new engine did not last long and he installed back the Antoinette one.However, Farman's constant tinkering with his plane Aeronautics.During the Summer, he added side-curtains to the wings, to make them true box kites, and importantly put in ailerons of his own design so that the machine could be Europe into the air.Appropriately enough it was Ernest Archdeacon, the man who had been doing so much to encourage Aviation in France since 1903. The only other prominent aviator during this period standard Voisin in 1907.However, he was less technicallyto the basic design (Fig. 10).Gabriel Voisin remarked that, a sporting rivalry seems to have been developed between Open Source Philosophy and the Dawn of Aviation Figure 10.The Delagrange-Voisin airplane.
nd , Delagrange set an endurance record of 18 minutes, 30 seconds at Milan: Farman retaliated with 20 minutes, 20 seconds at Ghent, on July 6 th .On September 6 th bested that with 40 km at Champ de Chalons on October 2 nd .two places, rather than simply making measured circuits over the safety of an aerodrome.On 1908 October 30, he at Rheims in just under 20 minutes.
another for Farman, but they sold it to J.T.C Moore-Brabazon.This infuriated Farman so much that he established his own Farman Airlines, which operated the legendary Farman Goliath airliner in the decade of 1920.In 1910, the Voisin company needed a replacement for their famous, but now obsolete, box kite-like standard construction.The box kite was modernized, tor was discarded.This model then became the direct progenitor also experienced new types.One of these, which became quite was tested in late 1910, and it had been put together from existing parts, the fuselage reportedly coming from an old triplane.It was powered by a 50 hp Rossel-Peugeot rotary engine.Thus, Gabriel Voisin turned his attention to the automotive world.His brother Charles died in a car accident in 1912.Gabriel had a great deal of technical and engineering expertise He started by buying rights to Citroën models, using designs that had undergone testing, rather than starting from scratch.His expertise acquired in the Aviation world helped to design ground vehicles, which are aerodynamic but also light.The only downfall to this formula is that the vehicles were not always visually appealing, which led to poor sales.Most systems (ABS).
In 1907, Santos-Dumont's was working in a revolutionthat shaped things that would come.The single-engine The aviator performed a large number of experimentation with Demoiselle, which received successive designationsnumbers 19 to 22.The Demoiselle was a groundbreaking produced in different countries, including Germany, France, Holland, and the United States (Schmitt, 1990).This aircraft was employed as Dumont's personal transportation and he willingly let others make use of his design.The fuselage consisted of a specially reinforced bamboo boom, and the pilot sat beneath between the main wheels of a tricycle landa tail unit, which functioned as both elevator and rudder and by wing warping (number 20).
It presented a wingspan of 5.10 m and an overall length of 8 m.Its weight was little more than 110 kg with Santos-Dumont at the controls.The pilot was seated below the fuselage-wing junction, just behind the wheels, and commanded the tail surfaces using a steering wheel.The sustentation cables of the wing were made of piano ropes.Demoiselle featured airfoils with considerable camber at the wing leading edge.Initially, Santos-Dumont employed a liquid-cooled Dutheil & Chalmers engine with 20 hp.location, placing it in front of the pilot.He also replaced the former 20-hp engine by a 24-hp Antoniette and carried out some wing reinforcements.This version received the designation number 20.
Due to structural problems and continuing lack of into the Demoiselle's design: a triangular and shortened fuselage made of bamboo; the engine was moved back to its original position, in front of the wing; and increased wingspan.Thus, number 21 was born.The design of number 22 was basically similar to number 21. Santos-Dumont tested opposed-cylinder (he patented a solution for cooling this kind of engine) and cooled-water engines, with power settings ranging from 20 to 40 hp, in both variants.
An interesting feature of the water-cooled variant was the liquid-coolant pipeline that followed the wing lower side lofting to improve the aircraft aerodynamics.Dumont's monoplane could be constructed in only 15 days.Possessing outstanding performance, easily covering of more than 100 km/h, the Demoiselle was the last aircraft the airplane in Paris and some small trips to nearby places.Flights were continued at various times through 1909, includ-Saint Cyr to Buc on September 13, returning the following day, and another on the 17 th , of 18 km in 16 minutes.The rather popular.Santos-Dumont was so enthusiastic about Aviation that he released the drawings of Demoiselle for free, believing that aviation would be the mainstream of a new prosperous era for mankind (Fig. 12).Clément Bayard, an automotive and bicycle maker, constructed several units of Demoiselles, which was sold for 50,000 Francs.The 6 th the British Channel crossing, in 1909.
the Popular Mechanics magazine published drawings of the than any other that had been built up to that date, for those who wish to reach results with the least possible expenses and with minimum of experimenting.American companies sold drawings and parts of Demoiselle for several years thereafter.
the Taube (pigeon) and was a monoplane with bird-like wings.
the Avro Type F (Fig. 13), the latter has been considered as the The top speed of the Etrich aircraft with three passen-Open Source Philosophy and the Dawn of Aviation purchase of Demoiselle drawings.
hp.The engine, mostly the technical work of men other than Aviation.However, the American aerospace community did no information exchanging among the aviation pioneers.
The piloted machine had wire-braced tandem wings (one behind the other), a Pénaud tail for pitch and yaw control but no roll control, depending instead on the dihedral angle of the the Potomac River.This required a catapult for launching (Fig. 14).The craft had no landing gear, and the plan was to gave up the project after two crashes on take-off on October 7 and December 8, both in 1903.

United Brothers of America
According to their own report, on December 17 th , 1903, the machine was equipped with two counter-rotating propellers, which were driven by a single 12-hp four-cylinder reciprocatengine and had a takeoff weight of 408 kg, which resulted in a weight-to-power ratio of 25.5 kg/hp.About 30 reporters showed up at Huffman Prairie on May 23 rd , 1904.However, and everyone went home disappointed.A handful came back wind conditions were not present.However, there are some that covered a distance of astonishing 12 miles were said to be said that they were all the time busy applying for patents.
In 1901, the Frenchman Ferdinand Ferber heard of the began to correspond with them.Two years later, Ferber built a December 1905, Ferber published the letters he had received circuit.Ferber had a special interest in disclosing such kind of information: he intended to convince the French Army to purchase the brothers' creation.Most French people interested in Aviation did not believe that the Americans had obtained He even offered cash for that.However, he got a single replay form the Americans.Dumont.Orville remained in the United States to continue the pursuit of a contract to sell Armed Forces planes.They intended to improve their plane and secure European inveson the planes they had shipped to France at the end of 1907.
They were in terrible shape -French Customs had repacked them poorly.It took him six weeks to assemble an airplane, even with the help of the mechanics provided by Bollée.
The new airplane weighed 544 kg, characterized by a weightdue to bad weather.Finally, on August 8, 1908, the weather cleared.In front of a small crowd, which included the aviaimpressive.By October 15, he had taken up 30 passengers.
ment was made between the Société Ariel and in Britain with Short Brothers of Eastchurch.Both companies produced the had double elevators, main plains, and rudders.The rudders were placed further aft than in the brothers' 1905 design for better controllability.The pilot sat on the wing edge with the elevator control on his left.On his right, there was another stick that controlled both the rudders and wing-warping (indewheels, and so takeoffs continued to be from a wooden rail, assisted by a weight and derrick mechanism.After landing, the machine had to be carried back to the rail on a wheeled set up a factory in Dayton, Ohio.They also established a 1910, where Maxwell Air Force Base would later be located.
Meanwhile in the United States, on December 23, 1907, should be able to carry two men for a distance of 201 km at a minimum speed of 64 km/h.It should be able to stay aloft for one hour between refueling, land without damage, be transportable on an Army wagon, easily steerable in all directions, and at all times be under perfect control and equilibrium.
Department for one aircraft that would cost US$ 25,000.This was considerably less than the US$ 200,000 they had wanted to charge the French government the year before.Only one other bid would be considered, the one from Octave Chanute's old partner and their acquaintance, Augustus Herring.Back in Dayton, Orville was busily working on the plane for the Signal Corps with his two helpers -Charlie Taylor and Charlie Furnas.He was also writing letters and articles for and other journals.On May 14, 1908, the mechanic Charlie one, Orville made an error with the elevator lever, and the plane dove into the ground at 64 km/h.He was unhurt, but the plane was wrecked.Some months later Orville demonstrated a Model A to the US Army at Fort Myer.From September 3, Thomas Selfridge was fatally injured and Orville suffered a broken hip.Military trials were postponed until the following year, when a replacement aircraft would be available.The 1909 Signal Corps Flyer successfully completed the Army's tary airplane accepted into military service.

The Patent war
In 1908, the brothers warned Glenn Curtiss not to infringe used ailerons (Santos-Dumont had already employed ailerons exhibitions.The brothers' licensed European companies, manufacturers in their countries.The European lawsuits were legal maneuvering dragged on until the patent expired in 1917.A German court ruled the patent invalid due to prior U.S. groups that sponsored air shows and collected license fees from them.They won their initial case against Curtiss in February 1913, but the decision was appealed.
From 1910 until his death from typhoid fever in 1912, incessantly to consult with lawyers and to testify in what he felt was a moral cause, particularly against Curtiss, who was worry with the legal issue hindered their development of new inferior to those made by other companies in Europe.Orville exhausting travels and the stress of the legal battle.
The lawsuits against Americans companies that were trying to manufacture airplanes caused a huge setback to the In January 1914, a U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals upheld company continued to avoid penalties through legal tactics cross-licensing organization in which member companies paid a blanket fee for using Aviation patents, including the original a number of its own patents) each received a US$ 2 million payment.The patent war ended, although side issues lingered Aeronautical company (another successor) and the Curtiss corporation, which remains in business today producing hightechnology components for the aerospace industry.brothers, who were generally regarded as heroes.Critics said the brothers were greedy and unfair.Supporters said the expecting fair compensation for secrets of their invention.The brothers long friendship with Octave Chanute collapsed after he publicly criticized their actions.

Demoiselle and Farman airplanes in the United States
The Demoiselle took part in some air shows in the United States (Fig. 16) in early 1910s.Most of the planes displayed in those events were French.They contributed to the develop- a major role, Aviation became an instant obsession.The show was a catalyst that would lead him to build his own plane and This company evolved into the worldwide known Boeing Co.

FACTS AND FIGURES
Table 1 displays the impressive progress of the solution All achievements were recorded by Aéro-Club de France.
he was only able to deliver a remarkable performance in late 1908, after he incorporated the European technology.The brothers did not take part in the trophy organized by the Scien-Figure 17 is a diagram illustrating the relationship between weight-to-wing area and weight-to-power ratio for several improved the weight-to-power ratio of their machines.Howevsingle-engine piston-powered aircraft of all time.This explains the need for a catapult-launching system or suitable wind can be considered an underpowered glider.Even considering engine, we have obtained values quite different for that from a France, the pioneer of world Aviation, led the way for the industry was the most advanced in the world, and its contribution was crucial to the establishment and maintenance of air power to confront that of the Central Powers.In the early years of the war, France supplied aircraft and engines to her allies.French as forerunner of the quest for technology can be credited to the open-source ambience, which prevailed in the aeronautiproduction is naturally due to the shadow of the war to come.
In 1911, the tradition of military air shows was started, and not only was this idea taken up by other nations, but it proved a great stimulus for the Aviation industry.The industrial aircraft produc-1911produc- , 1,425 in 1912produc- and 1,294 in 1913produc- (Angelucci, 2001)).
Germany's achievements in setting up and developing the framework needed for aerial warfare can be considered as impressive.At the beginning of the war, German airplanes were slow and unarmed, intended only to be used for aerial observation and reconnaissance of ground forces.After changing the way aircraft could be usefulness in a war scenario, the new weapon.The aircraft production in 1912 topped 136 units, which is a considerable increase from just 24 built in 1911.In 1913, Germany aircraft production rose to 446.A huge  in August, 1909. On July 18, 1914, military aviation moved forward with the creation of the Aviation Section of the Signal its Air Force counted less than 250 airplanes, most of them unsuitable for combat.Only in 1918, the American Expeditionary Force's air arm could be organized in a proper manner equipment.At the end of the war, there were 45 squadrons, including 740 airplanes, 800 pilots, and 500 observers.
Table 2 summarizes the number of military airplanes that each country put into service in 1914 and 1918.The strongest nation was Germany, and the United States recorded a very number of British designed aircraft and engines.Among them was the mass-produced Airco DH.4 (Fig. 18).The type was a British two-seat biplane day-bomber and was designed two-seat light day-bomber to have an effective defensive entered service with the Royal Flying Corps in March, 1917.The majority of DH.4s was actually built as general purpose two-seaters in the USA, for service with the American forces in France.The DH.4 was tried with several engines, of which Due to the chronic shortage of Rolls-Royce aero engines in general, and Eagles in particular, alternative engines were also Rolls-Royce Eagle in performance and reliability.However, there were simply not enough Eagles available.In the USA, inferior performance to that provided by the Eagle.
were contracted by the US Army to re-manufacture surplus deliveries of 111 aircrafts from this manufacturer took place between March and July 1920, with 50 of them being returned for further refurbishments three years later.(Angelucci, 2001)

CONCLUDING REMARKS
Santos-Dumont in 1906 rests on technological advances in equations that model the behavior of a body in relative motion th century.However, these equations could only be properly solved with the advent of the digital computer.
In the beginning, Aviation development was in many military aviators, and wealthy hobbyists.Their exploits may have thrilled the masses, but for most Aviation was a spectator activity, not a part of everyday life.Exception was made for Santos-Dumont, Farman, Voisin brothers, Blériot, and enlisted here envisaged the Aviation taking an important role in mankind life.Santos-Dumont was the only one who did not look at Aviation as a personal commercial enterprise.Although the rich Dumont himself did not take part in any commercial enterprise, he was aware of the commercial impact of Aviation on the world's economy and of its potential as warfare.Therefore, it is easy to recognize that the Internet has enabled a large amount of collaborative projects on a global scale.However, collaborative work in an open source fashion is not new.Indeed, it already took place in Europe at the dawn of Aviation, namely in France.That kind of ambience at that time can be credited to the ideals of the French Revolution.Contrary to this, in the United States, the development of the Aviation encompassed the spirit of the English Revolution.It was business-oriented with people working in secrecy with no or few exchanging of ideas and information.That is the reason why Europe was ahead of America concerning aircraft started in the United States among their Aviation pioneers.The meeting between Santos-Dumont and Thomas Edison can be considered confront by English versus French revolutions.Although resulting inconclusive, the meeting revealed America and Europe.Probably, this talk had exercised some Although a cooperative atmosphere in Europe in the dawn of Aviation was established and widespread, no collective decision concerning the design of airplanes was made.Most of aviation pioneers freely shared their concepts and even entire designs but acted someway independently.A combination of open-source philosophy and collective decision really did not take place in Europe.
in the United States to establish business with the American ans went a step ahead of this: in January 1908, Henri Farman and their machine, and they did not deliver the performance the brothers had promised.After incorporating European airplane they were able to sell to the US armed forces in 1909.
In addition, American pilots were at controls of French and produced British airplanes under license in the United States this is the British bomber DeHavilland DH 4, of which 4,346 exemplars left assembly lines in the United States.How was the spirit of French Revolution put into practice coming on the scene of the Aéro-Club de France (French Air Club).The Aéro-Club de France was founded in 1898 to organize, support, and regulate all efforts to make Aviation an attempts concerning a heavier-than-air machine, balloons prises building and manufacturing airships.Then, people that founded the Aéro-Club de France promptly elaborated rules de France was a basic concept that all other similar air clubs was a tycoon of the petroleum sector and became a sponsor of the Aviation, closing interacting with Aéro-Club de France founders.Although there was a competition for glory among its members, truly information exchange was part of everyday ress in Aviation and Aeronautical Engineering were reported, analyzed and discussed in that place.

Figure 4 .
Figure 4. Some airships designed and built by Santos-Dumont.
was taken, on December 8 1903, manned tests of the Aerodrome ended abruptly in failure, as it fell into the Figure 16.Demoiselle and Blériots airplanes taking part in an air show in Texas, United States, January 1910.

Figure 17 .
Figure 17.Comparing graph containing two important parameters for single-engine piston-powered airplanes.
1799, 26-year-old George Cayley sketched what it is an airplane: a cambered wing having dihedral; an aft vertical tail; and an aft horizontal tail.Cayley's choice for the airfoil was based on their Aerodynamic characteristics tested by him and his predecessors using a whirling arm apparatus.He himself invented dihedral as a means for maintaining equilibrium in roll.The vertical tail provided directional stability, like the feathers on an arrow, and in Cayley's view, would also be used for steering, as a boat's rudder serves.By analogy, the horizontal tail gave stability in pitch.It turned out that Cayley was half right on both counts.He did not motions of an aircraft were produced and, therefore, it has he had things right at the level he worked.Already with his thoroughly in a series of papers: the means of producing lift to compensate weight must be distinct from the ones for generating thrust; a revolutionary idea at that time (Grant and Cayley wrote books and articles about light theory, which a successful industrialist in the lacemaking business in Somer- writings, Henson and an engineer who also worked in the lacemaking industry, John Stringfellow, designed a steam-driven airplane called an aerial steam carriage.Samuel Henson, John Stringfellow, Frederick Marriott, and D.E.Colombine incorporated as the Aerial Transit Company in 1843 in England,